Discussion

Explanation:

The author criticises scholars who are not geographers for 3 main reasons.

1. Denouncing of geographical determinism. [option (b)]. Para 3.
2. Stressing the role of contingency (a favorite word among historians) based on individual decisions and chance. [option (a)]. Para 5.
3. Their lack of detailed knowledge about geographical factors. [option (d)]. This is mentioned in last para.

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